Access to outpatient services in rural communities changes after hospital closure.

OBJECTIVE: Between January 2005 and July 2020, 171 rural hospitals closed across the United States. Little is known about the extent that other providers step in to fill the potential reduction in access from a rural hospital closure. The objective of this analysis is to evaluate the trends of Federally Qualified Health Centers (FQHCs) and Rural Health Clinics (RHCs) in rural areas prior to and following hospital closure. DATA SOURCES/STUDY SETTING: We used publicly available data from Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Provider of Services files, Cecil G. Sheps Center rural hospital closures list, and Small Area Income and Poverty Estimates. STUDY DESIGN: We described the trends over time in the number of hospitals, hospital closures, FQHC sites, and RHCs in rural and urban ZIP codes, 2006-2018. We used two-way fixed effects and pooled generalized linear models with a logit link to estimate the probabilities of having any RHC and any FQHC within 10 straight-line miles. DATA COLLECTION/EXTRACTION METHODS: Not applicable. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Compared to hospitals that never closed, the predicted probability of having any FQHC within 10 miles increased post closure by 5.95 and 11.57 percentage points at 1 year and 5 years, respectively (p < 0.05). The predicted probability of having any RHC within 10 miles was not significantly different following rural hospital closure. A percentage point increase in poverty rate was associated with a 1.98 and a 1.29 percentage point increase in probabilities of having an FQHC or RHC, respectively (p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: In areas previously served by a rural hospital, there is a higher probability of new FQHC service-delivery sites post closure. This suggests that some of the potential reductions in access to essential preventive and diagnostic services may be filled by FQHCs. However, many rural communities may have a persistent unmet need for preventive and therapeutic care.

Testing telediagnostic obstetric ultrasound in Peru: a new horizon in expanding access to prenatal ultrasound.

BACKGROUND: Ninety-four percent of all maternal deaths occur in low- and middle-income countries, and the majority are preventable. Access to quality Obstetric ultrasound can identify some complications leading to maternal and neonatal/perinatal mortality or morbidity and may allow timely referral to higher-resource centers. However, there are significant global inequalities in access to imaging and many challenges to deploying ultrasound to rural areas. In this study, we tested a novel, innovative Obstetric telediagnostic ultrasound system in which the imaging acquisitions are obtained by an operator without prior ultrasound experience using simple scan protocols based only on external body landmarks and uploaded using low-bandwidth internet for asynchronous remote interpretation by an off-site specialist. METHODS: This is a single-center pilot study. A nurse and care technician underwent 8 h of training on the telediagnostic system. Subsequently, 126 patients (68 second trimester and 58 third trimester) were recruited at a health center in Lima, Peru and scanned by these ultrasound-naïve operators. The imaging acquisitions were uploaded by the telemedicine platform and interpreted remotely in the United States. Comparison of telediagnostic imaging was made to a concurrently performed standard of care ultrasound obtained and interpreted by an experienced attending radiologist. Cohen's Kappa was used to test agreement between categorical variables. Intraclass correlation and Bland-Altman plots were used to test agreement between continuous variables. RESULTS: Obstetric ultrasound telediagnosis showed excellent agreement with standard of care ultrasound allowing the identification of number of fetuses (100% agreement), fetal presentation (95.8% agreement, κ =0.78 (p < 0.0001)), placental location (85.6% agreement, κ =0.74 (p < 0.0001)), and assessment of normal/abnormal amniotic fluid volume (99.2% agreement) with sensitivity and specificity > 95% for all variables. Intraclass correlation was good or excellent for all fetal biometric measurements (0.81-0.95). The majority (88.5%) of second trimester ultrasound exam biometry measurements produced dating within 14 days of standard of care ultrasound. CONCLUSION: This Obstetric ultrasound telediagnostic system is a promising means to increase access to diagnostic Obstetric ultrasound in low-resource settings. The telediagnostic system demonstrated excellent agreement with standard of care ultrasound. Fetal biometric measurements were acceptable for use in the detection of gross discrepancies in fetal size requiring further follow up.

Number of Patients with Ischemic Stroke did not Decline in a Regional Stroke Unit After the Implementation of Mechanical Thrombectomy.

OBJECTIVES: Since the implementation of mechanical thrombectomy (MT) in 2015 for patients with ischemic stroke and large-vessel occlusion, the question arose as to whether patients should be primarily admitted to the nearest regional stroke unit (SU) for prompt intravenous thrombolysis (IVT) or to a more distant supraregional SU performing MT, to avoid secondary-transfer delays in MT. Although an evidence-based answer is still lacking, a discrepant discussion with potential consequences for the regional flow of stroke patients arose. We aimed to assess if MT implementation was associated with the number and characteristics of patients with stroke/transient ischemic attack (TIA) admitted to a regional SU not offering endovascular treatment. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Patients with acute stroke/TIA treated at the Klinikum Main-Spessart Lohr, Germany, in 2013/2014 or 2017/2018 were included in this retrospective study. Data were derived from the clinical information system and mandatory stroke quality assessment. We assessed the catchment area using a region-based approach. For each region, the number of patients treated in our hospital, including data regarding clinical severity, demographic characteristics, and changes over time, were analyzed. RESULTS: The number of patients with acute stroke/TIA increased from 890 (2013/2014) to 1016 (2017/2018). Aggregated demographic and clinical data of the whole catchment area showed no differences between 2013/2014 and 2017/2018 (P > 0.05) besides duration of hospitalization (P < 0.01), IVT rate (P < 0.01), and secondary transfer for MT. A region-based analysis revealed an increase in younger and more severely affected patients admitted from the periphery of the catchment area between 2013/2014 and 2017/2018. CONCLUSION: Despite the implementation of MT in the supraregional SUs around our regional SU (not offering MT), more patients with stroke/TIA were admitted to our hospital, especially younger and more severely affected patients, from the border regions of the catchment area.

"From the technology came the idea": safe implementation and operation of a high quality teleradiology model increasing access to timely breast cancer assessment services for women in rural Australia.

Breast cancer is the most commonly diagnosed cancer in Australian women. Providing timely diagnostic assessment services for screen-detected abnormalities is a core quality indicator of the population-based screening program provided by BreastScreen Australia. However, a shortage of local and locum radiologists with availability and appropriate experience in breast work to attend onsite assessment clinics, limits capacity of services to offer assessment appointments to women in some regional centres. In response to identified need, local service staff developed the remote radiology assessment model for service delivery. This study investigated important factors for establishing the model, the challenges and enablers of successful implementation and operation of the model, and factors important in the provision of a model considered safe and acceptable by service providers. METHODS: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with service providers at four assessment services, across three jurisdictions in Australia. Service providers involved in implementation and operation of the model at the service and jurisdictional level were invited to participate. A social constructivist approach informed the analysis. Deductive analysis was initially undertaken, using the interview questions as a classifying framework. Subsequently, inductive thematic analysis was employed by the research team. Together, the coding team aggregated the codes into overarching themes. RESULTS: 55 service providers participated in interviews. Consistently reported enablers for the safe implementation and operation of a remote radiology assessment clinic included: clinical governance support; ability to adapt; strong teamwork, trust and communication; and, adequate technical support and equipment. Challenges mostly related to technology and internet (speed/bandwidth), and maintenance of relationships within the group. CONCLUSIONS: Understanding the key factors for supporting innovation, and implementing new and safe models of service delivery that incorporate telemedicine, will become increasingly important as technology evolves and becomes more accessible. It is possible to take proposed telemedicine solutions initiated by frontline workers and operationalise them safely and successfully: (i) through strong collaborative relationships that are inclusive of key experts; (ii) with clear guidance from overarching bodies with some flexibility for adapting to local contexts; (iii) through establishment of robust teamwork, trust and communication; and, (iv) with appropriate equipment and technical support.

Mental Health Care for Rural and Remote Australians During the Coronavirus Disease 2019 Pandemic.

The aims of this article are to comment on pre-coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) mental health activity in rural and remote Australia, including related air medical retrievals; to discuss how the current pandemic is likely to impact on this vulnerable population's mental health; and to provide potential solutions. The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in significant air medical activity from rural and remote Australia. COVID-19 and the necessary public health and socioeconomic interventions are likely to significantly compound mental health problems for both the general public and the mental health workforce servicing rural and remote communities. However, the COVID-19 crisis provides a window of opportunity to develop, support, and build novel and sustainable solutions to the chronic mental health service vulnerabilities in rural and remote areas in Australia and other countries.

General surgery in Canada: current scope of practice and future needs.

BACKGROUND: The scope of practice of general surgeons in Canada is highly variable. The objective of this study was to examine the demographic characteristics of general surgeons in Canada and compare surgical procedures performed across community sizes and specialties. METHODS: Data from the Canadian Institute for Health Information's National Physician Database were used to analyze fee-for-service (FFS) care provided by general surgeons and other providers across Canada in 2015/16. RESULTS: Across 8 Canadian provinces, 1669 general surgeons provided FFS care. The majority of the surgeons worked in communities with more than 100 000 residents (71%), were male (78%), were aged 35-54 years (56%) and were Canadian medical graduates (76%). Only 7% of general surgeons practised in rural areas and 14% in communities with between 10 000 and 50 000 residents. Rural communities were significantly more likely to have surgeons who were international medical graduates or who were older than 65 years. The surgical procedures most commonly performed by general surgeons were hernia repairs, gallbladder and biliary tree surgery, excision of skin tumours, colon and intestine resections and breast surgery. Many general surgeons performed procedures not listed in their Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada training objectives. CONCLUSION: Canadian general surgeons provide a wide array of surgical services, and practice patterns vary by community size. Surgeons practising in rural and small communities require proficiency in skills not routinely taught in general surgery residency. Opportunities to acquire these skills should be available in training to prepare surgeons to meet the care needs of Canadians.

CONTEXTE: La pratique des chirurgiens généralistes au Canada varie grandement. Cette étude visait à examiner les caractéristiques démographiques des chirurgiens généralistes au Canada et à comparer les interventions réalisées selon la spécialité et la taille des collectivités. MÉTHODES: Des données de la Base de données nationale sur les médecins de l'Institut canadien d'information sur la santé ont été utilisées pour analyser les soins rémunérés à l'acte dispensés par des chirurgiens généralistes et d'autres fournisseurs de soins au Canada en 2015­2016. RÉSULTATS: Dans 8 provinces canadiennes, 1669 chirurgiens généralistes ont fourni des soins rémunérés à l'acte. La majorité d'entre eux travaillaient dans des collectivités de plus de 100 000 résidents (71 %), étaient des hommes (78 %), avaient entre 35 et 54 ans (56 %) et avaient obtenu leur diplôme de médecine au Canada (76 %). Seuls 7 % des chirurgiens généralistes travaillaient en région rurale et 14 %, dans des collectivités comptant entre 10 000 et 50 000 résidents. En région rurale, la probabilité que les chirurgiens soient des diplômés internationaux en médecine ou aient plus de 65 ans était significativement plus élevée. Les interventions les plus fréquentes étaient la réparation d'une hernie, la chirurgie de la vésicule biliaire et des voies biliaires, le retrait de tumeurs de la peau, la résection du côlon ou de l'intestin et la chirurgie mammaire. De nombreux chirurgiens généralistes ont réalisé des procédures ne faisant pas partie des objectifs de formation du Collège royal des médecins et chirurgiens du Canada. CONCLUSION: Les chirurgiens généralistes canadiens réalisent une large gamme d'interventions chirurgicales et leur pratique varie selon la taille de la collectivité dans laquelle ils travaillent. Les chirurgiens exerçant en milieu rural et dans les petites collectivités doivent avoir des compétences qui ne sont habituellement pas enseignées durant la résidence en chirurgie générale. La formation devrait intégrer des occasions d'acquérir ces compétences pour préparer les chirurgiens à répondre aux besoins en matière de soins des Canadiens.

Patterns of Care and Clinical Outcomes in Patients with Cerebral Sinus Venous Thrombosis.

OBJECTIVES: To explore the association between rurality, transfer patterns and level of care with clinical outcomes of CVST patients in a rural Midwestern state. MATERIALS AND METHODS: CVST patients admitted to the hospitals between 2005 and 2014 were identified by inpatient diagnosis codes from statewide administrative claims dataset. Records were linked across interhospital transfers using probabilistic linkage. Rurality was defined by Rural-Urban Commuting Areas using the 2-category approximation. Driving distances were estimated using GoogleMaps Application Programming Interface. Hospital stroke certification was defined by the Joint Commission. Severity of CVST was estimated by cost of care corrected for inflation and cost-to-charge ratios. Outcome was discharge disposition and total length of stay (LOS). Wilcoxon rank-sum, Chi-square, Fisher's exact tests and linear and logistic regressions were used. RESULTS: 168 CVST patients were identified (79.8% female; median age = 32, IQR = 24.0-45.5). Median LOS was four days (IQR = 2-7) and patients traveled a median of 8.1 miles (IQR = 2.5-28.5) to the first hospital; 42% of patients were transferred to a second hospital, 5% to a third. More than half (58.3%) bypassed the nearest hospital. 86% visit a primary or comprehensive stroke center (CSC) during their acute care. Rurality was not significantly associated with LOS or discharge disposition after adjusting for age, sex and cost of care. Patients in CSC demonstrated greater likelihood of being discharged home compared to at a primary stroke center after adjusting for age and disease severity (p = 0.008). CONCLUSIONS: While rurality was not significantly associated with LOS or disposition outcome, care at a CSC increases likelihood of being discharge home.

Transcatheter Aortic Valve Replacement in Low-Population Density Areas: Assessing Healthcare Access for Older Adults With Severe Aortic Stenosis.

BACKGROUND: Restricting transcatheter aortic valve replacement (TAVR) to centers based on volume thresholds alone can potentially create unintended disparities in healthcare access. We aimed to compare the influence of population density in state of Florida in regard to access to TAVR, TAVR utilization rates, and in-hospital mortality. METHODS AND RESULTS: From 2011 to 2016, we used data from the Agency for Health Care Administration to calculate travel time and distance for each TAVR patient by comparing their home address to their TAVR facility ZIP code. Travel time and distance, TAVR rates, and mortality were compared across categories of low to high population density (population per square miles of land). Of the 6531 patients included, the mean (SD) age was 82 (9) years, 43% were female and 91% were White. Patients residing in the lowest category (<50/square miles) were younger, more likely to be men, and less likely to be a racial minority. Those residing in the lowest category density faced a longer unadjusted driving distances and times to their TAVR center (mean extra distance [miles]=43.5 [95% CI, 35.6-51.4]; P<0.001; mean extra time (minutes)=45.6 [95% CI, 38.3-52.9], P<0.001). This association persisted regardless of the methods used to determine population density. Excluding uninhabitable land, there was a 7-fold difference in TAVR utilization rates in the lowest versus highest population density regions (7 versus 45 per 100 000, P-for-pairwise-comparisons <0.001) and increase in TAVR in-hospital mortality (adjusted OR, 6.13 [95% CI, 1.97-19.1]; P<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Older patients living in rural counties in Florida face (1) significantly longer travel distances and times for TAVR, (2) lower TAVR utilization rates, and (3) higher adjusted TAVR mortality. These findings suggest that there are trade-offs between access to TAVR, its rate of utilization, and procedural mortality, all of which are important considerations when defining institutional and operator requirements for TAVR across the country.

Rural clinics implementing collaborative care for low-income patients can achieve comparable or better depression outcomes.

INTRODUCTION: The gap between depression treatment needs and the available mental health workforce is particularly large in rural areas. Collaborative care (CoCM) is an evidence-based approach that leverages limited mental health specialists for maximum population effect. This study evaluates depression treatment outcomes, clinical processes of care, and primary care provider experiences for CoCM implementation in 8 rural clinics treating low-income patients. METHOD: We used CoCM registry data to analyze depression response and remission then used logistic regression to model variance in depression outcomes. Primary care providers reported their experiences with this practice change 18 months following program launch. RESULTS: Participating clinics enrolled 5,187 adult patients, approximately 15% of the adult patient population. Mean PHQ-9 depression score was 16.1 at baseline and 10.9 at last individual measurement, a statistically and clinically significant improvement (SD6.7; 95% CI [4.9, 5.3]). Suicidal ideation also reduced significantly. Multivariate logistic regression predicted the probability of depression response and remission after controlling for several demographic attributes and processes of care, showing a significant amount of variance in outcomes could be explained by clinic, length of time in treatment, and age. Primary care providers reported positive experiences overall. DISCUSSION: Three quarters of participating primary care clinics, adapting CoCM for limited resource settings, exceeded depression response outcomes reported in a controlled research trial and mirrored results of large-scale quality improvement implementations. Future research should examine quality improvement strategies to address clinic-level variation and sustain improvements in clinical outcomes achieved. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Rural and Remote Cardiology During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Cardiac Society of Australia and New Zealand (CSANZ) Consensus Statement.

THE CHALLENGES: Rural and remote Australians and New Zealanders have a higher rate of adverse outcomes due to acute myocardial infarction, driven by many factors. The prevalence of cardiovascular disease (CVD) is also higher in regional and remote populations, and people with known CVD have increased morbidity and mortality from coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). In addition, COVID-19 is associated with serious cardiac manifestations, potentially placing additional demand on limited regional services at a time of diminished visiting metropolitan support with restricted travel. Inter-hospital transfer is currently challenging as receiving centres enact pandemic protocols, creating potential delays, and cardiovascular resources are diverted to increasing intensive care unit (ICU) and emergency department (ED) capacity. Regional and rural centres have limited staff resources, placing cardiac services at risk in the event of staff infection or quarantine during the pandemic. MAIN RECOMMENDATIONS: Health districts, cardiologists and government agencies need to minimise impacts on the already vulnerable cardiovascular health of regional and remote Australians and New Zealanders throughout the COVID-19 pandemic. Changes in management should include.

Challenges and solutions in the continuity of home care for rural older people: A thematic analysis.

Home care is essential for the continuity of care, but rural communities struggle to procure these services regularly. As rural populations age, these difficulties may be exacerbated. This study examines the challenges and solutions for offering home care in rural areas. Healthcare professionals held focus groups and one-on-one interviews in rural communities, and these interviews were recorded and analyzed using thematic analysis. Changing rural contexts, stakeholder relationships, and sustainable communities were the primary themes. Increasing knowledge, sharing information, and dialogue among stakeholders were also crucial. Collaboration between professions may also create more sustainable home care in rural communities.

The nurse practitioner workforce: One rural state's experience of comparing state data with national trends.

BACKGROUND: There is a great need for primary care across the country especially in rural and underserved areas. Nurse practitioners (NPs) are filling these access gaps by providing high-quality, cost-effective primary care. However, one rural midwestern state does not address NP workforce data separately from other types of nursing data. In addition, these data are not included in the state's overall primary care workforce. Therefore, the data cannot be compared to the state's needs or national workforce trends. PURPOSE: The purpose of this investigation was to describe North Dakota's (NDs) NP workforce and compare this with national data. METHODS: A cross-sectional descriptive design was used to collect and analyze NP workforce data from several sources. State Board of Nursing licensure data were used for description of the NDs current NP workforce. Six other data sources or reports were used to complete the data picture. State information was then compared with national NP survey results. RESULTS: Both ND and national data sources reported the largest percentage of NPs certified in either primary care or adult care and practice primary care at either an outpatient or inpatient setting. North Dakota has a higher percentage of NPs working in primary care as compared with the national numbers. However, inconsistent categories are used in ND's NP workforce data and national surveys making comparisons difficult. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE: Accurate inclusion of NP workforce data in the overall health care workforce data will better guide state and national policy makers on necessary changes to decrease provider shortages and promote increased access to rural primary care services.

A Model for Assessing Necessary Conditions for Rural Health Care's Mobile Health Readiness: Qualitative Assessment of Clinician-Perceived Barriers.

BACKGROUND: Mobile health (mHealth) technology dissemination has penetrated rural and urban areas alike. Yet, health care organization oversight and clinician adoption have not kept pace with patient use. mHealth could have a unique impact on health and quality of life for rural populations. If organizations are prepared to manage mHealth, clinicians may improve the quality of care for their patients, both rural and urban. However, many organizations are not yet prepared to prescribe or prohibit third-party mHealth technologies. OBJECTIVE: This study explored organizational readiness for rural mHealth adoption, the use of patient-reported data by clinical care teams, and potential impact on improving rural health care delivery. METHODS: Semistructured, open-ended interviews were used to investigate clinicians' current practices, motivators, and perceived barriers to their use of mHealth technologies in rural settings. RESULTS: A total of 13 clinicians were interviewed, and 53.8% (7/13) reported encouraging use of mHealth apps or wearable devices with rural patients. Perceived barriers to adoption were categorized into three primary themes: (1) personal (clinician), (2) patient, and (3) organizational. Organizational was most prominent, with subcodes of time, uniformity, and policy or direction. Thematic analysis revealed code-category linkages that identify the complex nature of a rural health care organization's current climate from a clinician's perspective. A thematic map was developed to visualize the flow from category to code. Identified linkages guided the development of a refined rural mHealth readiness model. CONCLUSIONS: Clinicians (including physicians) have limited time for continuing education, research, or exploration of emerging technologies. Clinicians are motivated to learn more, but they need guidance through organization-led directives. Rural health care institutions should consider investing in mHealth analysis, tool development, and formal recommendations of sanctioned tools for clinicians to use with patients.

Changing Narratives and Persisting Tensions: Conflicts between Chinese and Western Medicine and Professional Profiles in Chinese Films and Literature, 1949-2009.

This paper analyses the shifting images of Chinese medicine and rural doctors in the narratives of literature and film from 1949 to 2009 in order to explore the persisting tensions within rural medicine and health issues in China. Popular anxiety about health services and the government's concern that it be seen to be meeting the medical needs of China's most vulnerable citizens - its rural dwellers - has led to the production of a continuous body of literary and film works discussing these issues, such as Medical Practice Incident, Spring Comes to the Withered Tree, Chunmiao, and Barefoot Doctor Wan Quanhe. The article moves chronologically from the early years of the Chinese Communist Party's new rural health strategies through to the twenty-first century - over these decades, both health politics and arts policy underwent dramatic transformations. It argues that despite the huge political investment on the part of the Chinese Communist Party government in promoting the virtues of Chinese medicine and barefoot doctors, film and literature narratives reveal that this rustic nationalistic vision was a problematic ideological message. The article shows that two main tensions persisted prior to and during the Cultural Revolution, the economic reform era of the 1980s, and the medical marketisation era that began in the late 1990s. First, the tension between Chinese and Western medicine and, second, the tension between formally trained medical practitioners and paraprofessional practitioners like barefoot doctors. Each carried shifting ideological valences during the decades explored, and these shifts complicated their portrayal and shaped their specific styles in the creative works discussed. These reflected the main dilemmas around the solutions to rural medicine and health care, namely the integration of Chinese and Western medicines and blurring of boundaries between the work of medical paraprofessionals and professionals.

Family Medicine Rural Training Track Residencies: Risks and Resilience.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Family medicine rural training track (RTT) residency programs produce a higher proportion of graduates who choose rural practice than other programs, yet RTTs face continuing threats to their existence. This study sought to understand threats to RTT sustainability and resilience factors that enable RTTs to thrive. METHODS: In 2014 and 2015, the authors conducted semistructured interviews of 21 RTT leaders representing two closed programs and 22 functioning programs. Interview topics included program strengths providing resilience and sustainability, risk factors for closure or vulnerabilities threatening sustainability, and advice for other RTTs. The authors performed a content analysis, coding pertinent themes in all interview data. RESULTS: From the top three assets, risks, and advice that respondents offered, the following nine themes emerged, in order from most to least mentioned: leadership, faculty and teaching resources, program support, finances, resident recruitment, program attributes, program mission, political and environmental context, and patient-related clinical experiences. Interviewees frequently reported multifactorial causes for RTT sustainability or closure. CONCLUSIONS: Numerous factors identified, such as distance, can operate as positive or negative influences for program resilience, depending on place and context. Resilience depends on multiple forms of social capital, including robust networks among individuals and various communities: the local population and patients, local health care providers, residency faculty, and RTTs in general. The small size and remoteness of RTTs make them vulnerable to multiple challenges in finances, regulations, and accreditation, requiring program adaptability and suggesting the need for flexibility in the policies that govern them.

Optimizing osteoporosis care in a rural primary health care center: Findings of a research study aimed to support seniors.

BACKGROUND: Osteoporosis is one of the most under-diagnosed and under-treated health conditions in Canada. This study questioned whether an invitation to self-refer for osteoporosis risk evaluation would improve the number of patients who were tested for bone mineral density (BMD) at a rural Primary Health Care Center (PHCC). PURPOSE: The purpose of this study is to improve osteoporosis care and decrease bone fracture risk in a population of patients 65 years of age and older. METHODOLOGY: A quasi-experimental research design was used to review screening rates of BMD testing and identified patients in this population who were at low, moderate, and high risk for developing osteoporosis. Screening rates at the PHCC were compared to screening rates at another rural PHCC in the province. CONCLUSION: The self-referral program for BMD testing and a nurse-led intervention resulted in an increased number of people who were BMD tested at the study PHCC compared with the control PHCC, and identified more male patients 65 years of age and older who were at risk for osteoporosis and bone fractures. Recommendations suggest future research in other provincial PHCCs that may encourage self-referral programs for BMD testing and improved osteoporosis care for patients 65 years of age and older.